The decades after 1830 were a period of disintegration and uncertainty in German philosophy. For almost half a century idealist philosophies, culminating in Hegel’s grandiose system，had dominated the philosophical scene, revolving around such spiritual notions as transcendental ego，consciousness，presentation (Vorstellung ) , idea, mind, and spirit (Geist). The rapid collapse of German Idealism—that “gigantic mountain range” of creative thought, as Husserl called it in 1917，was due to a combination of causes.There was in the first place, accelerated progress in the natural sciences, ranging from physiology (Johannes Muller, Ernst Weber) to physics (Robert Mayer, Hermann Helmholtz) and chemistry (Justus von Liebig, Friedrich Wohler). The success of the experimental approach visibly demonstrated the futility of all idealistic speculation about nature. Secondly, there was the rapid growth of technology (especially the construction of railways and the invention of the telegraph), combined with the process of industrialization (resulting in tensions between capital and labour which led to radical changes in the economic system). Moreover, new political ideas concerning popular participation in government led first of all to the abortive revolution of 1848 and resulted finally in the unification of Germany after the war of 1866.Next to philosophical idealism, the other great loser in this course of events was Christianity, especially protestant Christianity, a long-standing ally of idealism. The vacuum thus produced was often filled by vulgar materialist ideas along the line of Ludwig Buchner’s Kraft und Stoff (1855). The more educated classes，however, had needs of a more refined nature, and they turned instead to Schopenhauerianism. Schopenhauer stood firmly in the great European tradition of idealism extending from Plato and Kant, but he nevertheless resolutely rejected post-Kantian, and more specifically Hegelian idealism. Schopenhauer combined the scientist’s conviction of a blind causality reigning in the world of nature with a view according to which this world is none the less rooted in a subjective bestowal of sense. He combined the democratic feeling of compassion for all mankind with an elitist view on art, and a belief in the ultimate meaninglessness of history with an ontology in which the will is fundamental. But above all his philosophy, while rating Christianity rather low, made room for religion on better soil: the religion of India.The view of Indian thought current among educated circles in the second half of the nineteenth century in Germany was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer. Not only did he give popular currency to expressions such as “nirvana” and “the veil of maya”,but also he may also be held responsible for the current amalgamation of all ideas which blew into Europe from the East. Neither Hinduism and Buddhism nor Brahmanism and Vedanta philosophy were clearly distinguished by Schopenhauer. On one point, however, he was particularly firm:Buddhism is the highest religion in the world，because it is an “atheistic religion” . Thus it not only surpasses Christian theism,but also comes close to Schopenhauer’s own conception of the absolute. Schopenhauer’s followers in Germany were therefore able to look down on the parochial Christian rituals practised in their country, while upholding the claim that they，too，were directed toward some higher entity however, vaguely conceived. Moreover, they could feel themselves close to the Vedas and Up anisads，considered to be the oldest and most venerable documents of human thought, while at the same time feeling superior to these Indian “myths” as a result of their own rootedness in the purely philosophical ideas of the Schopenhauerian system.To illustrate all this, I want to quote from a document which not only exemplifies this widespread attitude, but also deviates from it in a significant way. It will moreover display the typical framework of Husserl’s own understanding of Indian thought. The document in question is a letter written by Thomas Masaryk (1850—193

Mycenae strands on a hill skirted by two deep ravines. The site is a natural strong point, dominating the plain of Argos. It was first occupied about 3000 B. C., and a new settlement was made about 2000 B. C., which is generally believed to be the time when Greek speakers arrived in Greece. There is clear evidence for a sudden increase in the importance and prosperity of this settlement about 1600 B. C. , two grave circles have been found, one inside the later walls and containing six shaft graves, excavated by Schliemann in the 1870’s,the other rather earlier in date,outside the walls，discovered in 1950. These graves contained a mass of gold and other precious objects of great beauty, including import from Minoan Crete and Egypt.The power and wealth of Mycenae increased rapidly. There was soon a uniform culture in mainland Greece, stretching from Thessaly in the north to the south of the Peloponnesus, with palaces at Thebes, Athens, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos and probably at other sites not yet discovered. Although the palaces were the administrative centers of separate kingdoms, it seem likely that Mycenae was the leading, if not the dominated, kingdom. From 1500 B. C., the kings of Mycenae were buried in massive stone tombs outside the walls, of which the largest, the so-called Treasury of Atreus, is a magnificent architectural achievement. About 1450 B. C. the Achaeans,as the Greeks of the Mycenaean period were called,invaded Crete and destroyed all the Minoan palaces except Knossos, which they occupied. Succeeding to and made settlements on the islands and in Asia Minor. The zenith of Mycenaean power and prosperity was in the early thirteenth century; in this period were built the walls, some of which still stand, and the lion gate. By about 1250 B. C. , when the defenses were renewed and improved,there is evidence of destruction outside the walls. Trade declined;a period of upheaval and deterioration had begun. The Trojan War is thought to have occurred about this time. The traditional date for the fall of Troy is 1184 B.C. , but the American archaeologist Blegen,who made the most complete recent excavations and found clear evidence of a prolonged siege，date the destruction of Troy to about 1240 B C. It looks as though the Trojan expedition was the last united effort of the Achaeans.Mycenae was subjected to three successive attacks in the following years. In the first, the houses outside the walls were destroyed; in the second, the citadel was sacked;in the third, it was finally destroyed and not reoccupied. The other mainland palaces were all sacked around 1200 B. C. , presumably by bands of invading Dorian.1.When is it believed that the first Greek speakers first occupied Mycenae,and how long did it take before there was clear evidence of prosperity?2.Who made the most complete excavations of the site,and what did he/they find?3.Who were the Achaeans，and what did they do in the last half of the 14th century B C. ?4.According to the passage, did the Mycenaeans engage in international trade? If yes，with whom?5.According to the passage, were the people in mainland Greece united, and if so, where was the seat of power located?

A.3000 B . C . and 500 years B.2000 B . C . and 400 years C.1184 B . C . and 300 years D.1240 B . C . and 600 years
问题2：
A.Schleimann, and he found six grave shafts containing gold. B.Blegen,and he found evidence of a prolonged siege. C.American archaeologists, and they found that the height of Mycenaean power and prosperity were in the early thirteenth century B. C. D.A team of German archaeologists, and they found that the kings of Mycenae were buried in massive stone tombs outside the city walls.
问题3：
A.They were Dorians that invaded Mycenae and sacked most of the mainland palaces but not Knossos. B.They were the inhabitants of Troy, and they withstood a long siege in their city, according to the work of an American archaeologist. C.They were settlers in Asia Minor, and they expanded into the sea trade. D.They were Greeks in the Mycenaean Period,and they invaded Crete, destroying

The English speaker has [A]at his disposal a vocabulary and a set of grammatical rule which [B]enable him to communicate his thoughts and feelings, in a variety of styles, to [C]the other English speakers. His vocabulary, in particular, [D]both that which he uses actively and that which he recognizes, increases in size as he grows old, as a result of education and experience.

A.at his disposal B.enable C.the other D.both that which

This idea, in the avowed pantheism of Spinoza, was suffered to lapse during the 18th century, was revived again by Lessing and Herder, and became one of the central ideas of the great Romantic and Hegelian movements in Germany in the 19th century.

A.cease B.thrive C.supersede D.deplete

A number of researchers have written about a “hidden curriculum” in schools,defined as the subtle influences on students that reinforce sexist and racist messages. The hidden curriculum minimizes and （ ）the contributions women have made.

A.eulogizes B.maligns C.maximizes D.compliments

It is developing a service that will let you create all online identity that can （ ）various claims that it will back up.

A.plunge B.assert C.exert D.insert